In this episode, I discuss science-supported protocols to optimize your depth and rate of learning of material and skills. I explain the neurobiology of learning and neuroplasticity and how correctly timed, self-directed test-taking can be leveraged to improve learning and prevent forgetting.
I discuss the study habits of the most successful learners, ways to limit distractions, how to set study goals, and how tests can be used as tools to learn, not just as a means for evaluating one’s mastery of learned material. A surprising aspect of tests, specifically self-testing soon after exposure to new material, is that they can significantly improve your ability to learn, apply, and maintain new knowledge. I also discuss tools to improve focus and alertness while studying.
The Counter-Intuitive Nature of Learning
- The most effective learning practices are not intuitive, and common beliefs about how to learn are often incorrect.
- The primary goal of studying should be to offset the natural process of forgetting new information, rather than just "learning to retain" it.
Fundamentals of Neuroplasticity and Learning
- Neuroplasticity is the nervous system's ability to change in response to experience, forming the basis of all learning.
- The main mechanisms of neuroplasticity involve the strengthening and weakening of existing connections between neurons (synapses). The addition of new neurons (neurogenesis) is a rare mechanism and accounts for a trivial amount of learning in adults, mainly in the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus.
- The removal or weakening of neural connections is crucial for learning, particularly for the acquisition of new motor skills, and should not be seen as inherently negative.
The Most Effective Learning Tool: Testing and Self-Testing
- Testing is the single best tool for studying and learning, not just for evaluating knowledge, but for building, reinforcing, and consolidating it to offset forgetting. This is a critical reframe.
- Evidence for Testing's Efficacy:
- A 1917 study showed that children who read a biography once and then *self-tested* (mentally recalling information) performed vastly better than those who simply read it 3-4 times. Rereading material is far less effective than testing.
- More recent studies confirm that performing well on a final test is proportional to the number of prior tests taken on the material. Studying once and then taking multiple tests (STTT) leads to superior long-term retention compared to studying multiple times (SSSS) or studying, testing, then studying again (SSST).
- Even if initial test answers are incorrect, knowing the correct answers afterwards still leads to better retention than rereading.
- Confidence vs. Actual Learning: Rereading material multiple times can falsely increase confidence in one's learning, whereas those who test themselves (even if they initially struggle) actually achieve better long-term retention.
- Optimal Timing for Testing: Testing oneself *very soon* after initial exposure to new material (ideally the same day or next day) is most effective for offsetting forgetting. Delaying the first test after exposure yields poorer results.
- Mechanism of Testing: Testing forces the brain to actively retrieve information, engaging "recollection" rather than just "familiarity" (recognition). The struggle to recall, and the identification of errors, cues the nervous system to strengthen relevant neural circuits.
- Magnitude of Benefit: Taking just one self-directed test immediately after initial exposure to material can halve the amount of forgetting that would normally occur over time.
- Ideal Test Format: Open-ended, short-answer, or long-answer questions are most effective for self-testing because they require deeper recall and mastery, unlike simple multiple-choice questions that primarily rely on recognition.
- Pop Quizzes: While unpopular with students and often leading to lower teaching evaluations, pop quizzes are effective for learning. Informing students in advance that testing will be used as a learning tool can mitigate negative perceptions.
- Post-Exposure Practice: After being exposed to new material (e.g., leaving a class), taking a few moments to self-test (rather than immediately engaging with distractions like a phone) is a key opportunity to offset forgetting and enhance neuroplasticity.
The Two-Step Process of Neuroplasticity and Learning
- Step 1: Active Engagement (Focus & Alertness):
- Prerequisite: Achieving sufficient, high-quality sleep the night before is crucial for alertness and focus, making sleep the "best nootropic".
- Voluntary Focus: Consciously engaging attention and focus by telling oneself "I need to learn this" is more effective than passively waiting for information to be interesting.
- Embrace the Strain: The mental "strain" or difficulty felt when forcing oneself to focus is a positive signal to the nervous system that neural circuits need to change and adapt.
- Non-Pharmacological Tools for Focus: Regular 5-10 minute mindfulness meditation (focusing on breath or a visual target) can significantly improve focus, attention, and memory. Hydration and appropriate caffeine intake also play a role.
- Step 2: Consolidation (Deep Sleep & Sleep-Like States):
- The actual changes in neural connections that underpin learning predominantly occur during sleep, particularly during Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, which is more common in the latter half of the night.
- "First Night Effect": Information is largely consolidated during the sleep immediately following its initial learning; therefore, prioritising good sleep on that first night is important.
- Non-Sleep Deep Rest (NSDR)/Yoga Nidra: A 10-20 minute NSDR practice can restore mental and physical vigor and enhance neuroplasticity, especially when sleep has been insufficient.
Habits of Highly Effective Students
- Schedule dedicated study time, typically 3-4 hours per day broken into 2-3 sessions, for at least 5 days a week.
- Eliminate distractions by putting away phones and isolating themselves.
- Study alone rather than in groups.
- Teach peers the material they have learned, which helps to test and develop mastery ("watch one, do one, teach one" concept).
- Maintain a regular study schedule, as the brain entrains to consistent rhythms of activity, improving focus at those times.
- Possess a long-term, abstract, aspirational motivation (e.g., how their success will impact their family or life arc), which helps sustain effort during challenging periods.
Additional Tools for Enhanced Learning
- Emotion and Story: Emotionally intense or story-driven experiences are remembered more durably due to the release of neuromodulators like epinephrine and norepinephrine. Teachers can inject emotional emphasis, and learners can consciously generate internal emotional salience to enhance memory. Historical practices, like throwing students into cold water after learning, highlight the link between adrenaline and memory consolidation.
- Gap Effects: Short, periodic pauses (5-30 seconds) during learning sessions allow the hippocampus to replay and consolidate information at 20-30 times the normal rate, enhancing retention.
- Interleaving Information: Injecting seemingly unrelated anecdotes or slightly different information during a learning session can enhance overall learning. This helps the brain connect new material with existing or distantly related knowledge and is different from a pure "gap effect".
Levels of Mastery
- Unskilled: Limited understanding or ability.
- Skilled: Ability to recognise and use information in basic or advanced ways.
- Mastery: Deep, comprehensive knowledge that can be used flexibly.
- Virtuosity: Such a profound mastery that one can use material spontaneously and creatively, often leading to surprising and novel applications.